Earthen Dagu forts overlook the estuary and distant steam-and-sail warships in an illustrative reconstruction of the 1860 campaign.

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The Second Opium War

The forts held once. The empire faced a larger invasion.

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11 chapters · 20 min read

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Accessible gives a lighter overview. Deep Dive tells the fuller story.

Quick Answers

What was the Second Opium War?

Britain and France fought the Qing empire from 1856 to 1860 to secure wider commercial and diplomatic privileges. The conflict began with the disputed Arrow incident, passed through the Tianjin treaties and ended with the invasion of and a more unequal settlement.

At a glance

War: 1856–1860; institutional coda: 1861.
Principal belligerents: Qing China, Britain and France.
Qing forces won at Dagu in June 1859.
The Old Summer Palace was looted and burned in October 1860.

Common questions

Why is it also called the Arrow War?

The immediate crisis began when Qing officers arrested Chinese crew aboard the Arrow at Canton. Britain’s claim to protect the vessel was contested.

Did the Treaty of Tianjin legalise opium?

The main June 1858 treaty was followed by a separate November trade agreement that admitted opium imports at a duty and limited foreign traders’ role inland.

Who burned the Old Summer Palace?

After Anglo-French looting, British troops burned the complex under Lord Elgin’s order. He presented this as retaliation for the treatment and deaths of captives.

Did China become a colony after the war?

The Qing government survived, but expanded foreign privileges, territorial losses and treaty obligations restricted its sovereignty.

Context

Introduction

Overview

A boat is boarded at Canton. Four years later, foreign troops stand outside and the Old Summer Palace burns. Between those moments, Britain and France use war to demand a new relationship with Qing China. Follow the disputed Arrow incident, the treaties at , a Qing victory at the Dagu forts and the invasion that forced an unequal peace.

Key forces

The Arrow incident supplied a disputed British justification for a wider campaign.
France joined Britain; Indian troops and imperial resources helped sustain the expedition.
The Tianjin treaties enlarged foreign privileges, but their implementation remained contested.
Qing forces won at Dagu in 1859 before a larger expedition reversed that victory in 1860.

Chinese merchants and labourers move cargo along the Canton waterfront beside foreign trading houses.

Step 1 of 101856 CEAccessible mode

A Peace That Left the Conflict Open

By 1856, the First Opium War had ended, but the struggle over China's trade and independence was still open. Britain wanted more access. Qing officials wanted to limit foreign power.

The 1842 Treaty of Nanking had opened five ports and ceded Hong Kong to Britain. Later agreements gave foreigners special legal rights. These changes weakened China's control without satisfying British commercial ambitions.

Opium remained part of the problem. Merchants brought the drug from British-controlled India into China despite Chinese restrictions. Britain also wanted foreign diplomats to live in and traders to reach more of the interior.

The Qing government faced rebellion as well as foreign pressure. The Taiping civil war tied down armies and drained money. Officials had to manage several emergencies at once.

A dispute on a small boat at Canton would soon give British officials an opening to press much larger demands.

Step 2 of 101856 CEAccessible mode

The Arrow Incident

In October 1856, Qing officers boarded the Arrow, a Chinese-owned boat at Canton, and arrested Chinese crew members on suspicion of piracy. British officials turned the incident into an international crisis.

The boat had been registered in British Hong Kong, but that registration had expired. Whether a British flag had been flying was disputed. Britain's claim that China had insulted its flag was therefore far from straightforward.

Harry Parkes, the British consul, demanded the men's return and an apology. Ye Mingchen, the senior Qing official at Canton, eventually released the prisoners but refused the apology Britain wanted.

British warships attacked forts and bombarded Canton. The demands grew beyond the original arrests.

A small shipping dispute became the opening for a war over wider trade and diplomatic privileges. The issue was no longer just what had happened aboard the Arrow. It was who could use force to decide China's obligations.

Victorian members of Parliament debate foreign policy in the House of Commons.

Step 3 of 101857 CEAccessible mode

A War Debated, an Alliance Formed

The war was challenged inside Britain. In March 1857, the House of Commons condemned the government's handling of the Arrow affair. Prime Minister Palmerston answered by calling an election.

He presented his opponents as failing to defend British interests. His election victory strengthened the government and allowed the campaign in China to continue.

France joined Britain. The execution of the French missionary Auguste Chapdelaine in Guangxi supplied a grievance, while French leaders also wanted greater influence and stronger protection for missions.

Lord Elgin became Britain's leading envoy. Baron Gros represented France. Their work combined negotiation with the threat of armed force.

The Indian uprising of 1857 delayed reinforcements intended for China. The expedition depended on the resources of Britain's wider empire, including Indian soldiers.

The conflict had grown from a local dispute into a joint imperial campaign, shaped by politics and crises far beyond Canton.